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3.1 Understanding Classes and Objects Definition: Class: A blueprint or template for creating objects (like a cookie cutter) Object: An instance of a class (like a cookie made from the cutter) Real-World Example: Class: Student (blueprint) - Attributes: ...

4.1 What is Encapsulation? Encapsulation is the bundling of data (attributes) and methods that operate on that data within a single unit (class), while restricting direct access to some of the object's components. Purpose: Data Hiding: Protect internal state ...

5.1 What is Abstraction? Abstraction is the concept of hiding complex implementation details and showing only the essential features of an object. It focuses on what an object does rather than how it does it. Real-World Analogy: When you drive a car, you use ...

6.1 Introduction to SOLID SOLID is an acronym for five design principles that make software designs more understandable, flexible, and maintainable. Letter Principle Core Idea S Single Responsibility A class should have one reason to change O Open/Clo...

7.1 Constructors Purpose: Special member function that initializes an object when it's created. Types of Constructors: #include <iostream> #include <string> using namespace std; class Student { private: string name; int id; float gpa; public:...

Introduction to Blynk Blynk is an IoT platform designed to facilitate remote monitoring and control of microcontroller-based projects through mobile applications. The platform operates on a client-server architecture where hardware devices communicate with a c...

Introduction to Node-RED Node-RED is a flow-based programming tool built on Node.js that enables visual development of IoT applications and automation systems. Originally created by IBM for wiring together hardware devices, APIs, and online services, it provid...

A Graph is a non-linear data structure consisting of nodes and edges. The nodes are formally called vertices, and the edges are lines or arcs that connect any two nodes in the graph. Graphs are used to solve many real-world problems. They are used to represen...

A graph is an abstract concept. To store one in a computer's memory, we must translate this idea of vertices and edges into a concrete data structure. The choice of representation is critical, as it dictates the performance and space efficiency of our graph al...

Before diving into graph traversal, we must understand the two key data structures that power them: std::stack (for DFS) and std::queue (for BFS). 3.1 Introduction to std::stack std::stack is a container adapter in the C++ STL. It's not a container itself, bu...

Breadth-First Search (BFS) is a traversal algorithm that explores the graph "level by level." It starts at a source vertex, explores all of its immediate neighbors, then all of their neighbors, and so on. 4.1 BFS Analogy and Illustration Imagine a ripple effec...

Depth-First Search (DFS) is a traversal algorithm that explores the graph by going as "deep" as possible down one path before backtracking. 5.1 DFS Analogy and Illustration Imagine exploring a maze with only one path. You pick a direction (an edge) and follow...

This chapter combines all the concepts into a single Graph class using the C++ STL for the adjacency list. #include <iostream> #include <vector> #include <list> // For Adjacency List #include <queue> // For BFS #include <stack> // For Iterative DFS #...

1.1 Definition: The Control Unit (CU) is the core component of a computer's Central Processing Unit (CPU) that directs its operation. Often compared to the "brain" or "central nervous system" of the computer, the CU does not execute program instructions itse...

The fundamental problem of generating control signals, introduced in Section 1.0, is solved by two distinct design philosophies. This choice between a "hardwired" and a "microprogrammed" control unit represents a classic engineering trade-off between speed and...

This section details the core theory of the microprogrammed control unit, the flexible alternative to the hardwired FSM. This approach fundamentally changes the design from a complex, fixed logic circuit to a simple, programmable one. 3.1 Core Concept: The "...

If the Control Store is the "recipe book" for the CPU, then a micro-instruction is a single "line" in that recipe. It is the most fundamental unit of control in a microprogrammed CPU, defining the exact set of hardware operations that will occur in a single cl...

This section connects all the previous concepts to illustrate how the microprogrammed control unit runs a program. The core of this operation is the mapping of high-level assembly instructions to low-level micro-routines, all managed by the micro-sequencer. 5...