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PWM is a technique used to simulate analog output using a digital signal. Instead of producing a true analog voltage, the microcontroller rapidly switches a pin between HIGH and LOW. Term Meaning Period Total time of one cycle Duty Cycle Percentage of...

Servos are motors that adjusts to certain angles following certain PWM pulses. Servo Signal Operation Servo operates with 20 ms PWM periods. Parameter Typical Value PWM Period ≈ 20 ms Pulse Width ≈ 1 – 2 ms Servo operates with 20 ms PWM periods....

EEPROM is a small non-volatile memory inside the microcontroller. Unlike SRAM: SRAM loses data when power is removed EEPROM keeps data even after reset or power loss EEPROM is commonly used to store: Settings Calibration values System state EEPROM has limi...

1.1 Analog Signals Analog signals are signals that are continuous — meaning their values can change smoothly without jumps, representing physical quantities from the real world such as temperature, light, sound, and pressure. Characteristics of analog signals:...

2.1 Understanding ADC ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) is a component or circuit that converts analog signals (continuous values) into a digital representation (discrete values in the form of binary numbers) so they can be processed by digital systems such as...

The real world is analog — all physical phenomena (temperature, light, sound, pressure, humidity) are continuous signals. However, microcontrollers and computers can only process information in digital form (0 and 1). ADC acts as a bridge between the physical...

4.1 ATmega328p ADC Specifications The ATmega328p (used in the Arduino Uno) has a built-in ADC with the following specifications: Specification Value Resolution 10-bit (produces values from 0 – 1023) Conversion Method Successive Approximation Input C...

5.1 Reference Voltage (Vref) Reference Voltage (Vref) is the maximum voltage that serves as the full-scale reference in the ADC conversion process. Vref determines the range of input voltage that can be read by the ADC. On the ATmega328p, there are three optio...

6.1 ADMUX — ADC Multiplexer Selection Register ADMUX is an 8-bit register that handles the basic ADC configuration: reference voltage source, data storage format, and which analog input channel to read. Functions of each field: a) REFS1:REFS0 — Reference Sele...

Here is the complete workflow for using the ADC on the ATmega328p: The flowchart above illustrates the ADC reading process on the ATmega328p in single conversion mode using the polling method, with the following configuration: Conversion Mode: The ADC opera...

8.1 Full Code Here is an example of AVR Assembly code to read the ADC from the ADC0 pin using the internal 2.56V reference and a CLK/128 prescaler: #define __SFR_OFFSET 0x00 #include "avr/io.h" ;------------------------ .global main main: LDI R20, 0xFF ...

1.1 Overview SPI is a synchronous serial communication protocol commonly used for fast peripheral communication in embedded systems. It typically uses four lines: SCK: Serial Clock MOSI: Master Out Slave In MISO: Master In Slave Out SS/CS: Slave Select / Chip...

2.1 Overview I2C is a synchronous two-wire serial bus: SDA: Serial Data SCL: Serial Clock I2C supports multiple devices on the same bus using slave addressing and ACK/NACK handshaking. 2.2 I2C Transaction Flow Master sends START condition. Master sends Slav...

3.1 Sensor Fundamentals A sensor captures physical phenomena from the real world and converts them into electrical signals (analog or digital) for computation. For DHT11 specifically: It measures temperature and humidity. It is commonly used in educational an...